45th Agenda 

45th Session Issues

Myanmar

by
Francisco J. Loza

Introduction

Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, is a country whose people have had more than their share of suffering both economically and politically. For most of this country's independent life, there has been much political turmoil and little democracy. Surrounded by larger countries such as China, India and Thailand, the Burmese have led an isolated, politically repressed existence. Since their independence from England in 1948, the Burmese have had a neutral foreign policy, preferring to avoid confrontations with their neighbors and thus avoiding any external warfare. However, because Myanmar is made up of many different ethnic groups, there is internal ethnic conflict continuously.

The extremely large number of ethnic minorities is one of the most important factors in the turbulent situation in present day Myanmar. Myanmar is comprised of about 42 million people. Of this amount, only 60% are Burmese and the remaining 40% consists of over 100 minority groups and mountain tribes. Fighting between the government and these groups has caused an increase in the repression experienced by the people. Even at the time of Myanmar's independence in 1948, insurgency groups were already operating within the country.

Recently, this country has had a plethora of publicity, albeit negative, due to its military rule and charges of human rights abuses, among other reasons. Issues exist in this country that must be discussed by the international community, especially the United Nations, if they are to be resolved.

Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, thanks in part by the efforts of revolutionary leader Aung San, who the Burmese call "the father of our country." San was assassinated shortly after independence and Myanmar was subsequently led by prime minister U Nu. Civilian rule lasted until 1962, except for a brief period between 1958 and 1960. All the while, the government was trying to deal with the insurgencies in the countryside.

1962 Coup

In 1962, Army General Ne Win took control in a coup that ousted the civilian government. The private sector was largely nationalized at that time and military officers were put in charge of running certain industries. Also, the country was almost completely closed to the outside. Travel into and out of the country was abolished for most. Additionally, the military cracked down on any outside influences such as international organizations and foreign journalists. The result of all these measures was a severe deterioration in the economy. Again, the government continued engaging the insurgents in the outlying areas of the country.

In 1974, a new constitution was drafted and Win declared himself president of the new Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma; he ruled in an increasingly despotic way until 1988.

Direct Military Rule

That year, widespread discontent finally resulted in pro-democracy demonstrations and civil unrest. One of the leaders of this democracy movement was Aung San Suu Kyi, the daughter of Myanmar's founder, Aung San. On September 18, 1988, General Ne Win, whose policies had pushed Burma to the margins of the international community, stepped down and the military took direct control of the government. However, he still wielded much power behind the scenes (USDS, Burma Human Rights Practices).

This coup was not designed to overthrow a weak government; On the contrary, it was intended to shore up a regime that was highly unpopular. The State Law and Restoration Council (SLORC) , headed by top military officers, seized power. It was at that time that the country's name was changed to Myanmar. Many other name changes took place, including the capital city's name of Rangoon to Yangon.

The SLORC immediately promised multi-party elections. However, the people continued protesting in the streets. The government responded harshly, killing thousands in the streets of Rangoon and jailing many more, including most of the opposition's leaders. Nighttime curfews were implemented, and schools and universities were closed. Gatherings of more then five people were banned. It is reported that about ten thousand intellectuals, including students, teachers, monks, doctors and lawyers, fled to the countryside and joined the insurgency groups. Aung San Suu Kyi, a Nobel laureate and the most prominent figure for the opposition, was placed under house arrest on July 20, 1989.

This violence was condemned by the international community. The strongest critics were the United States and the European countries. However, many countries including Japan, China, South Korea, and Australia, reestablished economic ties with the military government a few months afterward.

The SLORC, in order to revive the economy, abolished all of Ne Win's economic policies and announced an "open-door" policy to promote investment and trade. Many Southeast Asian countries took advantage by investing in logging and other natural resources, the result of which was a devastation of Myanmar's forests.

As far as the announced elections, the government actually carried them out on May 27, 1990. Surprisingly, the election was reported to have been fair. Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy won with a clear majority even though she was under house arrest. However, the government refused to relinquish power and once again arrested most of the opposition leaders. The official results of the election were never officially released.

The Future

Since General Than Shwe became Chief of State in 1992, the SLORC has attempted to soften its rule by reopening the universities and releasing about two thousand political prisoners (USDS, Burma Human Rights Practices). However, Myanmar's military government, despite growing international pressure to restore democracy, is poised to strengthen its control through a new constitution. The SLORC has approved the ``basic principles'' of the new charter, drawn up by a convention of about 700 council-appointed delegates. The principles mandate ``genuine multi-party democracy,'' but they also call for an executive president chosen not by parliament, but by an electoral college and the armed forces. The new constitution also would allow the military to manage its affairs independently and permit the armed forces commander to take power in times of national emergency.

Foreign residents in Rangoon expect a new government to emerge in early 1995, once the constitution is prepared and adopted. However, they say the country would only have the semblance of democracy; the military would hold the reins of power.

Current Issues

As mentioned earlier, Myanmar led an isolated, although never peaceful, existence until the events in September of 1988 took place. The world's spotlight has since been pointed at this country due mainly to its human rights practices. Also, Myanmar is a huge producer of illegal drugs, and that concerns drug consuming countries such as the United States. Another effect of Myanmar's ethnic strife has been the displacement of many of its people; there are large amounts of refugees in camps both within the country and in the neighboring areas.

Human Rights

The most obvious issue at the moment is human rights. A 1994 United States Department of State report on human rights reported that "in view of the persistent abuses by the SLORC, including its use of forced labor, its wholesome denial of basic political rights, and blatant manipulation of a national convention, Myanmar must continue to be judged a serious violator of international human rights norms" (USDS, Burma Human Rights Practices). This report at length discusses the following as being a way of life in Myanmar:

Political and other extra judicial killings, disappearances.

Torture and other cruel punishment.

Arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile.

Denial of fair trials.

Arbitrary interference with privacy, family or home correspondence.

No freedom of speech and press.

No freedom of assembly or association.

No respect for political rights.

Additionally, a report released in October 1993 by the London-based human rights group Amnesty International said the council was also holding hundreds of political opponents in jail under atrocious conditions and subjecting members of ethnic groups to forced labor, torture, rape and summary execution.

United Nations Position

The United Nations also has not had much high-level contact with the military government. In 1991, 1992, and 1993, the U.N. General Assembly adopted increasingly strong resolutions urging the government to end human rights abuses and undertake real democratic reform. The most recent resolution in December of 1993 (A/Res/48/150) calls for the unconditional release of Aung San Suu Kyi and other detained political prisoners (USDS, Burma Human Rights Practices). It also called for the implementation of the results of the 1990 elections. Critics claim the resolutions have not had any effect on the military regime.

Myanmar Government Position

The government of Myanmar has consistently denied that a human rights problem exists. It has also has stated that "Myanmar will continue to pursue an active foreign policy end will strictly observe the five principles of peaceful coexistence." The government stresses that it has full diplomatic relations with over seventy countries. Additionally, the government deplores the continued pressure by "outside forces" to engage in their internal affairs. In September 1994, the government allowed a photograph of Aung San Suu Kyi to be published in a local newspaper, a first since the 1988 crackdown. There are other signs that the regime is softening its position. In the summer of 1994 a delegation from the U.S. was allowed to meet with Aung San Suu Kyi. Recently, Myanmar's government has entered into negotiations with the U.N. to attempt to end its international isolation.

Drugs

Another major issue concerning Myanmar is illegal drug production. Myanmar, last year produced some 2,575 metric tons of opium, a 13 percent increase over 1992 (USDS, International Narcotics CSR). Although the government seems to be genuinely committed to fighting drug production, it is a tremendous task for a cash-strapped economy like Myanmar's. The fact that the government has a weak influence in certain outlying areas of the country has also facilitated the increase of drug production. The United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse Control (UNFDAC) has a local representative in Myanmar to help deal with drug problems.

Refugees

As stated earlier, instability in Myanmar has created a large number of refugees in and out of the country. In 1992 alone, about 265,000 Muslims from the Arakan State of Myanmar fled to Bangladesh to escape repression. This issue is of major importance to the United Nations. The regime signed a Memorandum of Understanding on November 5, 1993 with the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) providing for a presence in Arakan State to monitor the repatriation and reintegration of these refugees now in Bangladesh.

Burmese refugees are also being housed in 13 camps in Thailand. About 50,000 of them are in Tak, 10,000 in Kachanaburi and several thousand in Mae Hong Song. Repatriation of these Burmese has not been successful as the refugees often claim there are no safe areas for them in Myanmar.

Trade

The United States has voiced its opinion against any trade with Myanmar until human rights abuses end. However, there are many other countries that have different views. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has adopted a policy of "constructive engagement" towards Myanmar. This alliance has been attempting to incorporate Myanmar into the world community. Saying that they can better influence the internal policies of Myanmar with closer ties, ASEAN members invited Myanmar to attend their annual meeting in July 1994. In addition, countries such as Poland, Portugal, Singapore, South Korea, and China continue to tolerate the sale of military items to Myanmar. China alone has sold an estimated $1 billion worth of arms to the regime since 1989.

Questions

Some would compare the situation in Myanmar to that of Haiti before the U.S. intervention. Both countries have had military dictatorships and have been accused of having little regard for human rights. The major difference is that the United Nations imposed a total embargo on Haiti to force the military to abandon power. In view of this:

1. Is it probable that political reform may be accelerated if countries engage in "constructive engagement" with Myanmar, such as certain countries have done, instead of isolating that country further?
2. Is it not necessary to be forceful in order to maintain order in a country with over 100 minorities?
3. The United States has accused the United Nations of not "putting teeth" behind the resolutions against Myanmar. What, if any, additional steps should be taken?
4. Should the U.N. place sanctions against Myanmar to force change?
5. To what extent should the United Nations be involved in such issues, anyway?
6. The U.S.?
7. Why has the United Nations not been as forceful with Myanmar?
8. Should countries be allowed to trade with Myanmar before political change takes place?<%0>

Sources

Fredholm, Michael. Burma: Ethnicity and Insurgency. New York, N.Y.: Praeger Publishers, 1993.

Japan Economic Newswire, "ASEAN Policy On Myanmar Gains Momentum." Bangkok, Thailand, July 28, 1994.

Lewis, Paul. "UN Sending Envoy to Aid Burmese Refugees." The New York Times. March 19, 1992. Section A, Pg. 7.

Liang, Chi-shad. Burma's Foreign Policy Relations. New York, N.Y.: Praeger Publishers, 1990.

Shenon, Philip. "Rare View of Dissident Feeds Hopes of Burmese." The New York Times. Sept. 22, 1994. Section A, Pg. 7.

Shenon, Philip. "Detained Burmese Laureate Speaks Out to U.S. visitors." The New York Times. Feb. 15, 1994. Section A, Pg.

Steinberg, David I. Burma's Road to Development. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, Inc., 1981.

Steinberg, David I. The Future of Burma: Crisis and Choice in Myanmar. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1990.

U.S. Department of State, "International Narcotics Control Strategy Report." Washington D.C., March 1, 1994.

U.S. Department of State, "Burma Human Rights Practices- 1993." Washington D.C., January 31, 1994.

Xinhua News Agency, "Myanmar Keeps On Pursuing Independent Foreign Policy." Yangon, Myanmar, April 10, 1994.